A blog about music theory demystified. Music theory and notation made simple. A holistic approach to understanding music theory. Free basic music theory lessons. Online music theory books.
This post is one of a growing series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
Note: Students who solely use text notation can skip this lesson. Text notation seldom uses key signatures so sharps and flats are written after every instance of a note. In text notation, accidentals are indistinguishable from notes in the key which have a sharp or flat.
What Is An Accidental?
The term accidental has two meanings.
An accidental is a general term for a sign affecting the pitch of a note, such as a sharp, flat or natural sign.
Within a key, an accidental is the term for a note that has been sharpened or flattened, so that it’s no longer part of the key. Sharps or flats that are part of the key signature are not considered to be accidentals. The following refers to how accidentals are used within the context of a key signature.
Unlike key signatures, accidentals only last within a bar and they are only applicable to the same octave: if the same note is used more than once in a bar, at the same octave, the accidental is only written for the first one.
The exception to this is that accidentals aren’t used in the middle of a tie, even if the tie crosses a barline. This is because tied notes are considered to be a single, longer note.
An accidental only lasts till the next barline.
An accidental only applies to a single note pitch. The same note at another octave requires it’s own accidental.
An accidental lasts the full length of a note, including tied notes. No accidental is used within a tie, even if it crosses a barline.
Courtesy Accidentals
An accidental lasts until the end of a bar. In the next bar, the note automatically reverts back to the key signature. As a reminder, this can be indicated by a courtesy accidental.
An example of this is the descending 7th and 6th notes in the melodic minor examples from the previous lesson, B3. Melodic And Harmonic Minor.
Courtesy accidentals, also known as cautionary accidentals, are sometimes written in parentheses () to indicate that each is only a reminder that a note is restored to the key signature.
Although not strictly necessary, it’s common practice to include courtesy accidentals. Whether or not you use parentheses is a matter of personal choice.
Example
The example below is in G melodic minor, requiring E natural and F# as accidentals when the melody ascends.
Accidental is only used at the beginning of a tied note, even if it crosses a bar.
Courtesy accidental because there is an F# in the previous bar, even though, as the end of a tied note, it is not written (see point 1).
Accidental is used for the first instance of each octave of a note within a bar.
Accidental is only used for the first instance of a note within a bar.
Courtesy accidental even though it’s in the key signature, because it was sharpened in the previous bar.
Ties And Slurs
A tie is a curved line that joins 2 notes of the same pitch to produce one longer note. It is placed adjacent to the notehead, opposite the stem.
A slur is a curved line that joins 2 (or more) notes of different pitches to indicate legato; full-length notes that are not articulated separately within the slur. It is placed adjacent to the notehead, opposite the stem.
Ties and slurs look the same. The only difference between a tie and a slur over 2 notes is the pitch.
Note: if the tied note is within a slur, the tie is always written closest to the notehead.
What if we wanted a slur to join a sharpened note at the end of a bar with its un-sharpened version at the start of the next bar? How can we distinguish this from a sharpened note tied over the barline?
In this case, the slurred note would receive a courtesy accidental, whereas there’s never an accidental within a tie.
Try These…
In the short melodies below, every note that’s sharpened is written with an accidental. Cross out any accidentals that shouldn’t be written and add any courtesy accidentals (or if you prefer, rewrite the exercises with the correct use of accidentals).
For example,
The answers, at the end of this post, show courtesy accidentals in parentheses. Parentheses are optional.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date with new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a growing series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
Context
There are times when intervals of the same number of semitones require alternate interval names.
When taken out of context, this difference can’t be heard, and in fact, without the right context there’s no reason to use an unusual interval name. However, the same size interval can sound unrecognisably different in different contexts and requires different note names and interval names to reflect this.
Even if you don’t use note names in your practice, it’s worth becoming acquainted with augmented and diminished intervals. You can definitely feel the difference in the appropriate context.
Augmented And Diminished
In 16. Intervals 1: Major, Minor And Perfect Intervals there was one interval which was unnamed; the interval of 6 semitones. There isn’t a note 6 semitones above the root note in either the major or minor scale so we can’t call it a major, minor or perfect interval. Instead, we describe it as being 1 semitone larger than a perfect 4th or 1 semitone smaller than a perfect 5th.
Just as a note can be sharpened or flattened, an interval can be augmented or diminished.
Augmented means that the interval is 1 semitone larger than the corresponding interval in the major scale (major or perfect).
Diminished means that the interval is 1 semitone smaller than the corresponding interval in the minor scale (minor or perfect).
Let’s look at the interval ruler on A:
The note 6 semitones above A could either be called D# or Eb.
If the interval is A-D# we call it an augmented 4th; a perfect 4th plus 1 semitone.
If the interval is A-Eb we call it a diminished 5th; a perfect 5th minus 1 semitone.
The same applies for other intervals with unusual note names. Most notes have two or more possible names, resulting in different interval names.
For example:
A to C# is a major 3rd
A to C double sharp is an augmented 3rd, 1 semitone larger than A to C#
D is a perfect 4th above A
Db is a diminished 4th above A, 1 semitone smaller than D to A
NOTE: Remember to always count intervals from the lower note to the upper note. Use the major and minor scales of the lower note to find the upper note and name the interval.
Example:
Interval names are based on note names as well as size, so even though A-C# and A-Db are the same number of semitones apart, they can’t have the same interval name.
A-C#
C# is the 3rd note of A major, so
A-C# is a major 3rd
A-Db
There is no Db in A major or A minor. There is a D natural, though, the 4th note of both A major and A minor.
A-D is a perfect 4th.
Db is 1 semitone lower than D, so A-Db is 1 semitone smaller than A-D.
A-Db is a diminished 4th.
In general, if the upper note of an interval doesn’t fit either scale of the lower note, look for the nearest note in the scale with the same letter.
If the upper note is 1 semitone higher than the equivalent note in the major scale, the interval is augmented.
If the upper note is 1 semitone lower than the equivalent note in the minor scale, the interval is diminished.
NOTE: Augmented and diminished intervals can involve the occasional double-sharp or double-flat, depending on the lower note.
If the lower note is a sharp, an augmented interval will most likely require the upper note to be a double sharp. Similarly, if the lower note is a flat, a diminished interval would probably require the upper note to be a double flat.
Don’t be concerned. Just stick to the method:
sharpen = 1 semitone higher without changing the note name
flatten = 1 semitone lower without changing the note name
Interval Names Summary
2nds, 3rds, 6ths and 7ths have four possible qualities. From largest to smallest they are augmented, major, minor, diminished.
4ths, 5ths and 8ths have three possible qualities. From largest to smallest they are augmented, perfect, diminished.
It’s possible to have an augmented 1st but a diminished 1st is meaningless. There’s no such thing as a negative interval. Intervals are absolute…
8ths can be diminished or augmented but they should be called eighths, not diminished or augmented octaves. By definition, an octave is a perfect 8th.
Here’s a list of all intervals within an octave, with examples on C showing all the interval names including augmented and diminished intervals for each degree.
Here’s the same list of intervals shown as an interval ruler on C.
Just a reminder: the scales used to count intervals are built on the lower note of an interval and serve as a ruler to measure the name of the interval, in this case an interval whose lower note is C. For an interval with a different lower note we use scales on the new note to measure the interval.
The interval ruler is no indication of the actual key of the piece! The actual key is determined by the key signature and the overall root note.
Why have two names for the same size interval?
Good question! Interval names are based on note names. Note names reflect a specific musical context. The same size interval can sound unrecognisably different in different contexts.
An interval name describes both the size of an interval and how many letters there are from the lower note to the upper note. This allows us to “reverse engineer” an interval name and arrive at the right note names as well as the right sound.
In the next lesson we will see a practical example of the use of an alternate interval name.
Why are there two note names for most notes?
There are actually more than two if you count double sharps and double flats…
The choice of note name depends on the context.
If a note belongs to the key of the piece, its name is determined by the key signature.
If a note doesn’t belong to the key, its name is based on which note in the key it replaces.
When reading a new piece, the reason for some note names may not be apparent. In the coming lessons we will encounter some examples where an unusual note name is required. You can see and hear two of these in Sleight Of Ear.
In the meantime, let’s assume that unusual note names are used for a reason, so interval names need to be able to reflect which note name is used.
How To Name An Interval
Write out the interval ruler; the major and *minor (phrygian) scales built on the lower note of the interval. One way to do this is to write out the major scale then flatten the 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th notes to get the *minor.
Look for the upper note of the interval in these scales.
If the upper note is in either scale or in or both scales, name it as we’ve already learnt, as a major, minor or perfect interval. You have the answer.
If it’s not in either scale, find the note of the same letter that’s closest in pitch to the upper note of the interval.
If the upper note is 1 semitone higher than the note of the same letter in the major scale, the interval is augmented.
If the upper note is 1 semitone lower than the note of the same letter in the *minor scale, the interval is diminished.
The degree is always the number of letters from the lower to the upper note, inclusive.
Try These…
Below is a blank interval ruler you can use as a template. For each of the following exercises, first write the scales of the lower note as per the template.
A. Name the following intervals, keeping the above method in mind:
A-G
A-Gb
C-C#
C-E
C-E#
Bb-Ab
Bb-Abb
D-A
D-Ab
D-G#
How To Name The Upper Note Of An Interval
Write out the interval ruler; the major and *minor (phrygian) scales built on the lower note of the interval.
For major, minor or perfect intervals, find the upper note by following where the degree and quality of the interval name intersect.
If the interval is augmented, sharpen the same letter note in the major scale.
If the interval is diminished, flatten the same letter note in the minor scale.
Try These…
B. Name the upper note of the following intervals. For the degree, count letters (including the starting note).
If the interval is augmented, sharpen the equivalent note in the major scale.
If the interval is diminished, flatten the equivalent note in the minor scale.
major 6th above G
augmented 6th above G
major 7th above G
augmented 7th above G
minor 3rd above E
diminished 3rd above E
perfect 5th above E
diminished 5th above E
minor 6th above C
diminished 6th above C
Answers at the end of this post.
Shortcuts
It may seem laborious to have to write out scales every time you want to name an interval.
If you know your keys well, you can do this in your head. In part, I have encouraged the learning of at least the key signatures of the major keys for this very reason. As we’ve seen, you can find the *minor by flattening the 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th notes. Key relationships also provide some shortcuts for remembering keys. Have a quick look at the relevant lessons from Part 1 if you’re not sure…
The good news is that there are a number of shortcuts to help us to name intervals without writing out scales. These will become apparent over the next few lessons.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a growing series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
A time signature has an inherent hierarchy of strong and weak points within the bar. Syncopation is the emphasis of weak parts of the time signature. This introduces a dynamic interaction between the time signature’s implied rhythm and the rhythm of the part; a sense of going “against the grain”.
The Back Beat
The simplest form of syncopation is to emphasise the weak beats instead of the strong beats. The classic example of this can be found in many popular music genres since the advent of rock & roll; the snare drum playing the “back beat”, emphasising beats 2 and 4 in a 4-beat bar.
A similar effect can be achieved on any instrument by accenting the weak beats. Below is an example of a quaver rhythm, first with accents on the strong beats, then on the weak beats.
Tap, clap or play along to the following rhythms:
Playing Off The Beat
The back beat is only syncopation in the broadest sense. The term syncopation typically refers to emphasising weak parts within the beat a rather than just the weak beats.
The most common example of syncopation within the beat is to emphasise the 2nd quaver of each beat, the “off-beats” or “and”s, instead of the beat itself.
The following example of a bar of quavers uses accents, first to emphasise each beat, then to emphasise each off-beat quaver. Listen to the rhythms then tap, clap or play along:
Listen again and this time, only tap on the accented notes.
Syncopation adds excitement to a rhythm. Even in rhythms which are largely on the beat, the odd syncopated moment adds life to a part.
In the drum rhythm below, there is a brief syncopation is in the second half of bars 2 and 4.
Ways To Syncopate
Syncopation can be achieved in 2 ways:
by emphasising a note or notes on a weak part of the bar as above, with an accent.
by de-emphasising a strong part of the bar, in particular by not playing a note there at all. This can be because there’s a rest or because the previous note is still sounding.
Note that when clapping or tapping, there is no audible difference between these two bars.
Zooming In
Syncopation doesn’t just refer to emphasising the off-beat quavers. A more aggressive version would be to syncopate by a semiquaver.
A couple of the rhythms we learnt in 20. How To Read Rhythms 1 had semiquaver syncopation within the beat, by not playing a note on the “and”, the 2nd quaver. We can see now why these felt harder to learn than the others… Here’s an example of a bar with these two rhythms. Tap or play along:
Once you’ve experienced it, syncopation feels quite “natural”. In many popular genres, singers seldom sing exactly on the beat, even if that’s how the melody is written. Instead, they instinctively apply a degree of syncopation so the melody doesn’t sound too rigid. Rhythmic players rely on syncopation to add dynamics and drive.
Learning To Syncopate
Like many rhythms, syncopation is best learnt initially using a metronome. The secret to being able to syncopate is to feel the beat – to know where the beat (or strong beat) is, and then to know what relationship your note has to the beat.
Some musicians find it easy to tap the beat with their foot while playing. If this works for you, then by all means tap instead of using a metronome. However, many find it awkward to tap on the beat while playing off the beat, especially when first learning a new rhythm.
Foot Tapping Tip: In simple time, use the action of lifting your toes between taps to represent the half-beats; the “and”s.
If the rhythm seems tricky, remember to slow down the tempo and zoom in, as discussed in 20. How To Read Rhythms 1.
Ultimately, once you know a rhythm well enough to be able to feel it, you will no longer need the metronome. Metronomes can become quite annoying over time(!) so it’s worth weaning yourself off it as soon as you can feel the rhythm properly.
Mixed rhythms
Many parts, rhythmic as well as melodic, have a degree of variation in their rhythm, often achieved by brief syncopations in between overall on-beat rhythms.
Try These…
Play the movies below and tap the rhythms with your hand on a bench top, or if you prefer, clap. Listen carefully to the metronome click so you remain aware of the beat…
Once you’ve learnt each rhythm, play it to a metronome at 60 bpm without the movie. Gradually increase the tempo to 100 bpm or more. You can play along to the following movies of the rhythms at 100 bpm to see how you went.
Being able to tap the beats with your foot while playing is a useful skill. Practice tapping the beats with your foot, together with the metronome, while playing or tapping/clapping the above rhythms with your hands. As you settle in, stop the metronome and try it by yourself.
Notation Tip
Rhythms are usually notated so that it’s clear to see where the beats are. For shorter notes, this is indicated by beaming. For longer notes, the note is split into shorter notes and joined by a tie (see 21. Note Values 2: Ties).
When crotchets fall halfway between beats, on the “and”s, they can be written as crotchets: it’s such a common occurrence that most musicians, once they see a crotchet after a single quaver or quaver rest, are familiar with this shortcut.
However, crotchets which are a semiquaver off the beat must be split and tied to show where the beats are, otherwise the music is too hard to follow.
In the correct example above we can see that the next note starts just after each beat. The position of each beat is clearly shown by the beaming.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
For convenience I will assume that a crotchet equals 1 beat. This is the case in time signatures of X/4, such as 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 etc. In these time signatures we have note values for 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/2, 2, 3 and 4 beats. Including double-dotted notes we can add 1 3/4 and 3 1/2 beats.
But what if we want to have a note longer than a bar? Or a note that’s 2 1/2 beats long? Or a note that’s starts before a barline but continues after it?
Ties
A tie is a curved line joining two consecutive notes of the same pitch, resulting in a continuous note of their combined length.
For instance, 2 minims joined by a tie sound like a semibreve.
If you want to join more than 2 notes together, such as when a note is several bars long, use a tie between each pair.
Here are a few examples:
For longer notes, the same length note may need to be broken up differently depending on the time signature. Here is a 9-beat long note in 4/4 and 3/4:
Ties are written opposite the stem.
If the stems go above the notehead, ties are written underneath the note.
If the stems go below the notehead, ties are written above the note.
NOTE: Tied notes must be of the same pitch!
Slurs Are Not Ties
You may have seen curved lines joining notes of different pitch, or encompassing several notes. These are not ties! They are called slurs and are used as an expression mark meaning legato, to play smoothly, without break or emphasis.
*Some common expression markings can be found in Beginner’s Tips (coming soon).
A tie can occur inside a slur.
Try These…
Write the following note lengths, using multiple note values and ties as necessary:
3 and a half beats
2 and a quarter beats
7 beats in 4/4
6 and a half beats in 4/4
6 and a half beats in 3/4
10 and three quarter beats in 4/4
Answers at the end of this post.
Beaming and the Time Signature Hierarchy
Short notes are beamed in groups of 1 beat (in X/4, quavers can also be beamed in groups of 1 strong beat). A beam always runs from the start of a beat to the end of that beat.
Beams never run across a beat. The idea is that, in a passage of short notes, you can see at a glance where the beats fall because of the way the notes are beamed.
If a note starts partway through one beat and carries over to the 2nd beat, it should be written as two shorter notes, one at the end of one beat and one at the start of the next beat, and joined with a tie.
This enables the reader to see where the beats fall, including when that’s part-way through a note. Wrongly beamed notes make the music very difficult to read!
Note:
Rhythms with notes that cross the beat, such as the previous example and those following, are not very easy to play compared to the rhythms we’ve already learnt.
When notes are split up correctly and joined with ties, we can see when a beat falls part-way through a note. This makes it possible to learn such new rhythms by zooming in and counting quavers. (If it’s still hard to play, we can zoom in twice and count each semiquaver as a beat, as explained in the previous lesson).
Playing notes that cross the beat is a form of syncopation. We’ll look at syncopation, including some basic exercises, in Part 2 of this course.
Longer Notes and Time Signatures
If a longer note starts before or after a beat, it, too, must be split up to show where the beats fall.
If we want a minim to start on, say, the 2nd semiquaver, we have to split it up into 3 parts to show where the beats fall. It may seem like a hassle but, as I mentioned earlier, indicating where the beats fall makes it so much easier to read and play.
Note: Due to common usage, a crotchet or dotted crotchet can start on any quaver but if it starts on the 2nd or 4th semiquaver (after a semiquaver or dotted quaver) you have to split it as above.
Try These…
Rewrite the following rhythms with correct beaming, splitting notes which fall across a beat and using ties where necessary:
Answers at the end of this post.
What’s Next?
This is the final lesson in Part 1 of my 2-part course in basic music theory.
Part 2 will commence later this year. In the meantime, here are a couple of suggestions for revision and follow-up.
Follow-up
Keep practising the musicianship exercises in this course (and similar exercises) until they are second nature. The abilities to sing or hum scales and intervals and to tap, clap or play rhythms are general skills useful for most instruments and genres.
These skills also help to connect notation and music theory to musical experience.
*Relevant lessons can be quickly found under the post category of Musicianship.
Visit the category Beginner’s Tips for extra posts on navigation signs, dynamics, tempo and expression markings.
Practise reading simple, well-known melodies in various keys in your preferred genre and clef.
Revision
Music Theory
Revisit the major musical concepts of modes, scales, and keys.
Become familiar with key signatures. Either learn them via a mnemonic or become quick at using key relationships to work them out.
Become familiar with key relationships: the cycle of 5ths (or at least how it works), relative major/minor and parallel major/minor.
Revisit major/minor/perfect interval names and how to name an interval.
Notation
Become familiar with the time signature hierarchy of 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4.
Practice reading and writing 1-beat rhythms (down to semiquavers).
Write key signatures in their correct sequence.
Coming Soon… Part 2 of this 2-part course in basic music theory.
This will include harmonic and melodic minor, augmented/diminished intervals, major/minor/modal chords, 7th chords, syncopation, compound time and more.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
Congratulations!
You have completed Part 1 of Music Theory De-mystified basic music theory course. I hope you have enjoyed it.
Part 2 includes augmented/diminished intervals, compound time signatures, plenty of basic rhythm exercises, melodic and harmonic minors, major and minor chords and more.
This course is part 1 of a two-part course in basic music theory and includes elements of notation and musicianship.
Part 1 is made up of 21 lessons of about 30 minutes duration (less for the first two). This amounts to one semester at one lesson per week or a 6-week course at one lesson every two days.
The lessons are grouped into modules of a few lessons each, providing some intermediate goals. Each module looks at a particular aspect of music theory and only takes 2-3 hours to complete.
Most lessons include a few quick exercises as well as suggestions for further exploration.
Although each lesson is self-contained, the lessons and modules are designed to run in numerical order.
Lessons include links to related lessons and tips as well as to deeper explanations of some of the principles discussed in the course.
Requirements
This course assumes no prior music theory or notation knowledge. However it is strongly recommended that the student has at least beginner level of playing ability on an instrument or a basic singing ability within a vocal range of 1 octave, so that they can explore what’s taught in each lesson.
Outcomes
An Understanding Of The Following Musical Concepts
Beats
Counting beats
Tempo
Timing
Note length
Bars
Time signature
Strong and weak notes
Simple Time
Note names
Clef
Sharpen and flatten
Interval
Octave
Semitone
Root note
Mode
Scale
Key
Key signature
Accidental
Key relationships
The cycle/circle of 5ths
Relative major/minor
Parallel major/minor
Major intervals
Minor intervals
Perfect intervals
Rhythm
Musicianship Skills
Count in time
Divide a beat into halves
Count bars and beats in simple time
Recognise whether a piece has 3 or 4-beat bars
Sing a major scale
Sing major, minor and perfect intervals above a note
Recognise and name major, minor and perfect intervals
Tap or play basic rhythms in simple time down to semiquavers
Notation
Stave, great stave
Treble and bass clefs
Note names and ledger lines
Note values including dotted notes
Ties
Time signatures (simple time)
Beaming in simple time
Key signatures
Major/minor scales in various key signatures
Major/minor/perfect intervals above a note
Notate short rhythms
Follow-up links to navigation markings, repeat bars and tempo ranges
Practice Technique
How to zoom in: slow down the tempo and count twice as often.
Recommended Additional Resources
This is primarily a music theory course. The notation exercises included are far from comprehensive and may be supplemented by music reading, beginner music theory workbooks and transcription exercises.
Musicianship, too, is a subject in its own right. There are many excellent musicianship workbooks and courses available to develop these skills. Ensemble work is also a great way to develop musicianship. Play with other musicians at every opportunity!
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
If you can’t wait to get to the exercises, click here. Otherwise, first some background.
Simple Time
Simple time refers to time signatures where the upper number = the number of beats in a bar and the lower number represents the note value for 1 beat. For example:
3/2 = 3 beats per bar, where each beat is a 1/2 note (minim)
5/4 = 5 beats per bar, where each beat is a 1/4 note (crotchet)
4/8 = 4 beats per bar, where each beat is a 1/8 note (quaver)
3/16 = 3 beats per bar, where each beat is a 1/16 note (semiquaver)
Why can so many note values represent 1 beat?
This is a subject for a future post but in essence, it allows the composer to influence the look of the written page. Just as we have different ways of explaining something, a composer can present musical information in a number of ways.
X/4
By far the most frequently used time signatures in simple time are X/4, where 1 beat is represented by a crotchet (quarter note), such as 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 etc.
In simple time it’s easy to divide a beat into halves and quarters using standard note values. If a crotchet = 1 beat, then a quaver = 1/2 beat and a semiquaver = 1/4 beat.
When there are several notes with tails in succession (quavers, semiquavers etc.) their tails are beamed (joined) together.
Notes are beamed in groups of one beat (quavers can also be beamed in groups of 2 beats), with the first note in the group being on the beat. This makes it easy to see where the beats are in a bunch of short notes.
(Sib Graphic of 2 bars of 4/4 mixed rhythms)
Resolution
Music is a human experience. Our ability to count steadily roughly matches the range of human heart rates, about 40 to 200 bpm.
At a tempo slower than about 40 bpm we can’t feel the continuity between beats and it becomes hard to keep the beats at an even tempo.
For really slow tempi we can effectively double the resolution by doubling the counting speed; by counting the “and”s, the second half of each beat. The more frequent counts allow us to keep track of the timing.
On the other hand, at a tempo faster than about 200 bpm it’s hard to feel each beat. We just can’t keep up… We’re tempted to just count the strong beats so we can count more slowly.
In both cases, when the tempo is outside a comfortable counting speed, we can adjust the resolution by changing what we count as 1 beat.
The Zoom Factor
When practising a tricky piece of music, the first step is to slow the tempo right down so we have a chance to learn the notes.
However, some pieces don’t just have a fast tempo; the beats are divided into really short notes, 1/4 of a beat or even shorter. Even at a slow tempo, the actual notes can still be really fast…
The solution is to count the “and”s; to count a half beat as if it’s a beat. By counting twice as often, we can slow the tempo down to half without it feeling too slow to count. For more on this, please visit 3. Beats, Tempo and Timing.
I liken this to zooming in.
When zoomed in, fast rhythms are much easier to learn. Instead of having to divide a beat into quarters, you only need to divide into halves.
For example:
How To Learn A Fast Or Tricky Rhythm
Zoom in and count every half-beat as a beat at a slow tempo.
Gradually speed it up until it’s fast enough to zoom out.
Without changing the playing speed, count half as often, so you’re counting the actual beats.
Gradually build up to the final tempo of the piece.
The Percussion Clef
The exercises that follow use a percussive sound (a snare drum). Drums and percussion have their own clef, where the lines and spaces represent different percussion instruments rather than note pitches. (Cymbals and some other percussion instruments also use differently shaped noteheads).
Common 1-Beat Rhythms In X/4
In X/4, a beat can be made up of a combination of quavers and semiquavers. In principle, we can go even further, into demisemiquavers (1/8 of a beat) or more, but that’s quite advanced.
There aren’t many ways to divide a beat into halves and quarters. These rhythms make a small enough list to learn as presets. In the example below I have written each beat as a bar of 1/4.
Even at 60 bpm, some of these rhythms sound quite tricky at first glance. They are much easier to learn if we zoom in.
Clap, Tap, Sing or Play
You can practise rhythms anywhere, by tapping on a tabletop, clapping or singing a simple syllable like “da”, “do”, “la” etc.
You can also play your instrument. Note that on keyboards and some melodic instruments it’s easier to play fast by alternating between 2 or 3 note pitches than to repeat a single note rapidly. Adapt the exercises accordingly…
Try These…
The following exercises have a metronome click to keep track of the beats. In the first group the rhythms are zoomed in so we count each quaver as a beat and each semiquaver as half a beat.
Each bar is played 4 times. The text “play 4 times” above the repeat signs has been left out to save space.
Make sure that you count at a steady tempo when practising. Tap or play each rhythm a number of times before trying at a faster tempo.
Emphasise the first note of every beat a little, especially if practising without a metronome. This helps you to feel the beats.
The first three rhythms are pretty straightforward at a moderately slow tempo when zoomed in…
NOTE: If you’re having trouble getting started…
Zoom in twice and count each semiquaver as a beat. A quaver is 2 beats long, a dotted quaver = 3 beats and a crotchet = 4 beats: no dividing required.
Gradually increase the tempo, then zoom out to quaver beats and continue with the following steps.
Practise each of these rhythms until you can feel them effortlessly. Start at a slow tempo and gradually work up to at least 120 bpm.
Once they’re at 120 bpm, count half as often without changing how fast you play the notes. Now we’re counting crotchet beats at 60 bpm!
This should sound the same as the previous step…
From here, we can gradually increase the tempo depending on the piece. I recommend practising until at least 100 bpm. Try to absorb the character of each rhythm as you practise.
As you become more familiar with each rhythm, leave out the “and”s.
Now let’s look at the other rhythms, one at a time. Follow the same steps as for the first three rhythms.
Bar 4
Bar 4 is probably easier after playing bar 2 first. Again, we’ll start by counting quavers as beats, at a moderate tempo. Feel the quavers, then add in the 2nd semiquaver.
Gradually increase the tempo until it’s at 120 bpm.
Now count crotchets at 60 bpm (it should sound the same as before).
Gradually increase the tempo (examples below at 80 bpm and 100 bpm).
Bar 5
Bar 5 is probably easier after playing bar 3 first. Feel all the semiquavers, then leave out the last one.
Note: It’s easy to get bars 4 and 5 mixed up. The difference is more obvious if you emphasise the first note of the bar.
Gradually increase the tempo until it’s at 120 bpm.
Now count crotchets at 60 bpm (it should sound the same as before).
Gradually increase the tempo (examples below at 80 bpm and 100 bpm).
Bar 6
Bar 6 is one of the harder rhythms because there is no note on the 2nd beat. Listen for the 2nd beat before playing the last note.
Gradually increase the tempo until it’s at 120 bpm.
Now count crotchets at 60 bpm (it should sound the same as before).
Gradually increase the tempo (examples below at 80 bpm and 100 bpm).
Bar 7
To play bar 7, hold the first note until after you’ve heard the 2nd beat. Listen for the 2nd beat before playing the last note.
Gradually increase the tempo until it’s at 120 bpm.
Now count crotchets at 60 bpm (it should sound the same as before).
Gradually increase the tempo (examples below at 80 bpm and 100 bpm).
Bar 8
To play bar 8, play the first 2 notes quickly then hold the 2nd note all the way to the end of the bar.
Gradually increase the tempo until it’s at 120 bpm.
Now count crotchets at 60 bpm (it should sound the same as before).
Gradually increase the tempo (examples below at 80 bpm and 100 bpm).
Rhythmic Presets
Practise tapping or playing each one-beat rhythm until you can recognise it at a glance. When you see a bar with a seemingly complex rhythm you can break it down beat by beat into familiar presets.
Can you recognise the one-beat rhythms in the following short melody? Tap or clap along if you can…
Notating Rhythms
Once you can recognise the character of each rhythm, you will become familiar with how it looks on a stave.
Bear in mind that tails and beams depend on the direction of the note stems. In a pitched part, some groups may appear upside down as in the above melody.
Try These…
The following audio files are each made up of a 1-beat rhythm played 8 times.
Tap or count the beats so you can feel the tempo as you listen to each audio file.
Once you feel the tempo, listen to the rhythm and clap, tap, sing or play the rhythm.
Identify which rhythm you’re hearing/playing.
Notate each rhythm as a series of correctly beamed note values (since the pitch doesn’t matter, you can use blank paper instead of manuscript if you like).
Answers at the end of this post.
Reading Rhythms
Long notes are relatively easy to read – we can just count a number of beats while holding the note. Short notes are a bit harder because we have to divide a beat into smaller values such as 1/2 or 1/4 of a beat.
This is where rhythmic presets come in. Rather than having to learn a longer rhythm from scratch, look for one-beat presets within the music so you can recall the rhythms you’ve already learnt.
Rhythm Practice
A great way to practise rhythms is to combine it with your scales practice.
Choose a one-beat rhythm and repeat it on each scale note.
Over time, build up the tempo.
Each day, play a different scale with a different rhythm.
Another good exercise is to write out a bar of 2/4, 3/4 or 4/4 made up of a combination of 1-beat rhythms, then learn to tap or play the whole bar as a larger rhythm. For example:
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
The minor intervals are minor 2nd, minor 3rd, minor 6th and minor 7th. There are a few ways we can learn to sing these intervals.
Phrygian mode
The minor intervals are based on the phrygian mode. The phrygian mode is not easy to sing!
Most people aren’t used to starting a scale with a minor 2nd (1 semitone). However, if you listen to early music or traditional folk genres, you may be able to sing it.
Give it a try if you like. Don’t worry if you find it hard because there are easier options below.
If you can sing this scale, you can teach yourself the minor intervals by counting scale notes in the phrygian mode, just as we did for major intervals in the previous lesson. If not, read on…
Natural Minor
The next option is to sing the natural minor scale. That works for all except the minor 2nd, 1 semitone. See below for how to learn to sing a minor 2nd.
Most people find this much easier to sing than the phrygian mode. Again, the best way to find out is to try it.
Try It…
If you can comfortably sing the natural minor scale without following the video, you can use it to find the minor 3rd, minor 6th and minor 7th. Learn to sing the minor 2nd separately (see later in this post).
Example: minor 7th by singing the minor scale
Major Scale
The final method, outlined below, is to start to sing a major scale. To sing a minor 2nd, 3rd, 6th or 7th, drop down by 1 semitone from the major to find the equivalent minor interval, much like the interval ruler in 16. Interval names 1: major, minor and perfect intervals.
This method is great when you want to name an interval that you hear, because at first you won’t know whether it’s major or minor.
Rather than having to try both major and minor scales, just sing the major scale. If the major scale overshoots the upper note of the interval it’s probably a minor interval. (There is one exception to this but we’ll leave that until Part 2 of this course).
This requires one trick; the ability to sing 1 semitone below a note. This may seem hard, but I’m sure you can already do it without even realising it…
How To Sing 1 Semitone Up Or Down
Try This…
Sing the first 4 (or the last 4) notes of a major scale.
Now go back and forth between the last two notes you sang – that’s 1 semitone.
Feel how close together these last two notes are, almost squeezed together… Remember that feeling when you want to sing two notes 1 semitone apart.
Does it remind you of something? Start slowly and speed it up… The theme of the all-time classic movie, Jaws…
Now you’ve sung 1 semitone up and down a few times, reverse it. Sing down before going up (start on the higher note if you like). Below we have 1 semitone as a minor 2nd on C, first upwards, then downwards. Focus on keeping the two notes squeezed tightly together.
After a little while, you‘ll be able to sing a semitone up or down down by itself.
How To Sing Minor Intervals By Singing The Major Scale
For a minor 2nd, learn to sing 1 semitone up as outlined above.
For other intervals, sing the major scale indicated by the degree of the interval name (3rd, 6th or 7th).
Sing down 1 semitone.
Repeat this a few times.
Now just sing the first and last note as an interval.
Repeat a few times. Build up to being able to sing it by yourself, without the video.
Once you’ve sung a few intervals, try to sing the in-between scale notes more quickly and quietly, until they’re just a thought.
Try These…
Minor 2nd by singing the major scale
Sing the first bar again while you listen to the 2nd bar.
This is just a semitone up rather than down, as we learnt earlier.
Minor 3rd by singing the major scale
NOTE: For this and the following intervals, repeat the 3rd bar while listening to the 4th bar.
Minor 6th by singing the major scale
Minor 7th by singing the major scale
How To Name An Interval That You Hear
Identify the lower and higher note of the interval and sing them.
While listening to the interval, start to sing the major scale of the lower note, counting degrees (note numbers).
If it’s a major or perfect interval, you’ll find the upper note and have the answer.
If it’s a minor interval, at some point you’ll be too high. As soon as you notice this, sing 1 semitone below your last note. If you’re still too high, you went too far up the major scale and you should start again.
You may need to repeat this a few times until you feel sure that your upper note matches the upper note of the interval.
Try These…
Name the following intervals:
Answers at the end of this post.
NOTE: There is one interval we haven’t covered in the last two lessons, an interval of 6 semitones, often called a tritone (we’ll learn its proper interval name in Part 2 of this course). It’s a bit harder to sing than the other intervals and isn’t all that common so we’ll leave that one out for now.
Coming Soon! The Interval-Singing Project
The interval-singing project is survey of well-known songs in many genres, each of which starts with a specific interval. For each genre I hope to collect song titles to cover each interval.
Instead of having to learn intervals from scratch, students will be able to draw on their own knowledge, needing only to remember which song represents which interval.
Anyone who subscribes to my blog will have access to the database at no cost.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
Learning To Sing Intervals
Interval names are based on scale notes.
If we can sing, hum or imagine the sound of a scale, we can teach ourselves the character and name of various intervals by ear. We can count how many scale notes there are from the lower note of the interval to the higher note.
The easiest scale to sing, at least in Western culture, is the major scale. If you can’t sing a major scale straight away, please have a look at 17. Listen And Sing: How To Sing The Major Scale before reading on.
Major scale intervals
In 16. Intervals 1: Major, Minor And Perfect Intervals we saw that intervals are always counted from the lower note to the higher note, regardless of the order in which they’re played. The lower note of the interval becomes the root note of a major scale. We count scale notes to find the higher note and name the interval.
Counting up from the root note, the major scale contains the major 2nd, major 3rd, perfect 4th, perfect 5th, major 6th, major 7th, and, of course, the octave.
Treat the root note of the scale as the lower note of an interval.
Now sing from the root note to the 2nd note. This is a major 2nd.
To sing a major 3rd, sing the first 3 scale notes in a row but sing the 2nd note quieter or shorter than the first and third notes (see below). After a few times, leave the second note out altogether.
Repeat this exercise from the root note to each of the other notes in the scale.
Tip: the most useful intervals to become really good at are the major 3rd, perfect 5th and the octave. They are the notes of a major triad, a sound which will feel familiar to the ear and provide a shortcut for larger intervals (more on triads in Part 2 of my course).
Try These…
Below are the intervals of C major. Most voices can find a comfortable way to sing a C in the lower part of their range. The note number/scale degree is indicated below the notes.
In the first line, sing along to the first bar, then sing the same notes again in the second bar while you hear the interval played together. Feel your voice hit the lower and higher notes of the interval at the start and end of the bar.
In the second line the in-between scale notes are left out. Again, keep singing the first bar while you hear the interval played together in the second bar.
Practice each interval long enough until you don’t need to listen to the example while you sing.
Major 2nd
Major 3rd
Perfect 4th
Perfect 5th
Major 6th
Major 7th
Octave (perfect 8th)
Once you build a little confidence, choose a slightly lower or higher note for your intervals.
The more you do exercises like these, the easier it will be to recognise the interval between two notes, whether you hear them as a melodic interval (consecutive notes) or as a harmonic interval (both notes sounding together).
How To Sing An Interval Above A Note
This is just like how we learnt the intervals starting on C
Choose a major or perfect interval by name, such as a perfect 4th.
Play a note towards the bottom of your range.
Sing that note, then sing a note that’s the chosen interval above it
If you need to, you can quietly sing the in-between scale notes like in the first exercise.
How To Name An Interval You’re Hearing
You can use the same method to name an interval that you hear.
First, identify both notes of the interval by singing them. They are a little harder to pick when played together.
Sing the lower note, then sing the notes of the major scale until you hear your note match the higher note, counting notes as you sing (the starting note counts as the first note).
2 notes is a 2nd, 3 notes is a 3rd, etc. The 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th are major intervals, the 4th and 5th are perfect. (Technically the octave is also perfect, we just don’t need to say so. An octave is just called an octave.)
Try These…
Below are audio files of a few harmonic intervals. Remember to sing both notes of each interval before singing (or thinking) scale notes. To make it a little easier, the two notes are quickly played as a melodic interval before hearing the two notes together.
Name each interval using the steps outlined above:
Answers at the bottom of this post.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
This post is one of a 2-part series of free basic music theory lessons on my blog, musictheoryde-mystified.com. You can see the complete list here. Please feel welcome to make a comment or ask a question.
…If you can already sing a major scale you can skip this lesson…
If you’re panicking at the thought of doing this lesson, relax… When I say “sing”, I don’t mean “sound like a real singer”! Don’t worry about tone, voice quality, breathing etc. You don’t even have to hold a note for very long. All we’re trying to do is pitch a few moderate-length notes in a comfortable part of the voice range.
The ability to sing a scale is one of the fundamental skills of musicianship. It helps develop our sense of tonality, which in turn helps us to understand and remember melodies and riffs. We also use scales to recognise, count and name intervals.
The easiest scale to sing, at least in Western culture, is the major scale. You may even know the major scale already, in solfege, as a simple melody: do, re, mi etc.
If you’re not used to singing, start on a fairly low note, so you can sing upwards from there. The exercise below starts on C, which most people can sing as a low-ish note.
A note about voices and octaves
The range of female voices and children’s voices can be represented on the treble clef. Middle C or C4 is a comfortably low note. The octave from C4 to C5 is typically a comfortable range to sing in, even for untrained voices.
In general terms, a male voice typically sounds an octave lower than a female voice. The male voice’s actual pitch range fits on the tenor (guitar) clef.
Many songbooks don’t distinguish between male and female voices. Melodies are written in the treble clef by default. When a male voice reads middle C and sings a comfortably low note, we hear C3, not C4.
This is such a natural phenomenon that we interpret this difference more as tone than as pitch. We expect male voices to sound lower than female voices.
We all “reach up” to sing a high note and “reach down” to sing a low note. These ranges within the voice range are called registers. High notes are in a high register, low notes in a low register. As humans, we can hear the effort of reaching for high or low notes as a change in register.
When female and male voices sing together, we listen more for which register they sing in (reaching up or reaching down) rather than which actual octave.
The examples and exercises in this post are in the treble clef, at the actual pitch of a typical female or children’s voice. Male voices should have no trouble singing along an octave lower as long as middle C is thought of as a low-ish note.
What Words Shall I Sing?
For beginners, start with a consonant such as “L”, “T” or “D” followed by an open mouth vowel sound such as “aah”, “oh”or “ooh”. These are the easiest sounds to control and produce a clear and stable pitch.
Examples: La la la la, Da da da da, Ta ta ta ta , Doo doo doo doo etc.
If you’re confident that you can hold a note on different syllables, you could sing the note numbers as you go, “one, two, three, four “ etc.
How To Sing A Major Scale
The following video is the scale of C major at a slow tempo, one note per bar.
In each bar, you hear the scale note first.
During the rest that follows, answer by singing the same note (indicated on the stave by a slash).
Each bar is repeated so you can check that you’re singing the right note.
Here’s the same exercise without the repeats.
Now repeat the exercise at a faster tempo.
Feel how far you need to move from one note to the next; close for 1 semitone, a little more for 2 semitones. Remember the pattern of 2- and 1-semitone intervals that make up the major scale.
As you get used to the notes, you can sing along with the video as well as singing the answers.
Here’s the whole scale without rests.
Listen to the scale of C major, then sing along with it. Repeat several times.
When it feels comfortable, listen again, then sing the scale by yourself.
You can monitor your progress by singing along to the video again.
Once you can sing it by yourself, try speeding up the tempo or singing in quavers rather than crotchets.
Here it is at a faster tempo…
Other modes
As a follow-up, you can teach yourself to sing the scale of any other modes that are used in genres that interest you, be it the natural minor, melodic and harmonic minor (coming in Part 2 of this course), other traditional modes, the blues scale etc. Look at the pattern of intervals that make up the mode as you play and sing along.
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
A great deal of music is made up of sections which are played more than once. Special barlines and other symbols can be used to indicate such sections, substantially reducing the number of pages required to notate a piece.
In a score, navigation text and signs are written above the stave for each part in Bold.
Navigation works a bit like a model railway, with signals directing the player through and around various sections of the music.
Although originally devised for music notation, navigation markings can equally be used on text-based notation such as chord charts or abc notation.
Navigation markings
Section End
A section end is a double barline of the usual thickness. As the name suggests, it indicates the end of a section of the music. When you see a section end, keep playing unless other symbols indicate a pause in the timing.
Final Bar/Double Bar
The final bar is a double barline with an extra-thick second line. It indicates the end of the whole piece unless other symbols indicate otherwise.
End Repeat Sign
An end repeat looks like a final bar but with two dots to the left.
If no begin repeat has been passed, go back to the beginning of the piece and play it again, else go back to the nearest begin repeat sign and play again.
Once you reach the end repeat a second time, continue onwards.
Begin Repeat Sign
A begin repeat sign is the reverse of an end repeat. When you encounter one, keep playing: it has no meaning until you reach an end repeat sign. Think of a begin and end repeat as a pair of brackets enclosing a section which is to be played twice.
Play X Times
The words “play x times” above an end repeat indicate that the repeated section is played the total number of times indicated here by “x”, such as “play 3 times”.
1st And 2nd Time Bars
In a repeated section, first and second time bars allow different endings for leading back to the start after the first time through and playing on after the repeat. First and second time bars can be made up of more than one bar, as indicated by the length of the line.
Da Capo or D.C.
As well as repeated sections, the whole piece may be repeated, including any internal repeats. A repeat sign at the end is confusing because someone reading the music would be looking for a matching start repeat that doesn’t exist. Such larger scale repeats are indicated with the Italian words “da Capo” (“from the head”), to play again from the beginning.
The abbreviation D.C. is often used instead of the full wording.
Note: In some genres, internal repeated sections are not repeated the second time.
The diagram below shows how the navigational symbols are interpreted. To keep the example tiny, each section is represented by only 2 bars (at a very fast tempo!)
Common navigation markings
All navigation markings must be written over a double bar. If there is no repeat sign or final double bar, a section end (thin double bar) must be used.
Da Capo al Fine, D.C. al Fine
(go back to the beginning and repeat until the word “Fine”)
The piece is played again from the beginning, stopping the second time on the word “Fine” (“end”).
If you found this post helpful, please feel welcome to like, share or leave a comment. If you have any questions, leave them as a comment and I’ll respond as soon as I can. To stay up to date wth new posts, please subscribe.
