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By default, most text notation doesn’t bother to distinguish between a high and low version of a note. It is assumed either that this is evident from the surrounding notes or that the reader is at least somewhat familiar with the music already.
However, there are ways of describing the exact pitch of a note, most notably the Roland system of MIDI note numbers developed in the early 1980’s to transmit and receive musical note pitch information between controllers and synthesisers.
This system is based on counting note names in octaves, where middle C = C4.
NOTE: The octave numbers change at C, not A! Be careful not to mis-count the number of octaves…
For Example, A4-C5 is a major 3rd, not an octave plus a major 3rd.
In order to make this blog accessible to a wide range of musicians, I have tried to include text notation where I can. Octave numbering expands my capacity to use text for examples and exercises.
For more on octave numbers and the pitch of different instruments, please visit my Beginner’s Tip, Pitch Ranges.
The most common way to describe an interval larger than an octave is as a number of whole octaves plus the remaining interval. The degree is that of the remaining interval.
For example, C4-G5 is 1 octave (C4-C5) plus a perfect 5th (C5-G5).
Note: For more on text notation and octave numbering as used in this post, please visit Text Notation, Pitch and Octave Numbering (coming soon).
Large Intervals As A Single Interval Name
Another approach is to describe the interval using a single interval name.
For example, C4-G5 is called a perfect 12th.
Although this method is primarily used for harmonic analysis, the 2nd octave, from 9th to 14th, also forms the basis of how chord extensions (as found in Jazz chords) are named. It’s worth having at least a general understanding of how this works.
Extra octaves don’t affect the interval’s quality, only the degree; the number of letters. For intervals larger than an octave or 8th, just keep counting: an octave plus a 2nd is a 9th, an octave plus a 3rd is a 10th and so on.
You may have noticed that the numbers don’t quite add up: 8 + 2 = 10, yet I’ve said an octave plus a 2nd is a 9th!
Describing an interval as a name for the number of octaves plus a name for the remainder is similar to how we count an interval and it’s inversion. For each complete octave, one note is counted twice.
In our example, C4-G5, we count C4-C5 as 8 letters, then C5-G5 as 5 letters. C5 has been counted twice, both as the upper note of the octave and as the lower note of the remaining 5th.
How To Name A Large Interval
To count the degree, add up the number of octaves (8ths) and the remaining interval
Subtract 1 for each whole octave
Note: Technically the first whole octave is 8 letters and we subtract 1 from subsequent octaves and the remaining interval, but it’s easier to count as above.
For example, A2-F5
A2-F5 = 2 octaves + minor 6th = 8+8+6-2 = 20. A2-F5 = minor 20th
OR
When adding up the degree, count each whole octave as 7 letters instead of 8, then add the remaining interval
For example, A2-F5 = 2 octaves + minor 6th = 7+7+6 = 20. A2-F5 = minor 20th
Try These…
Name the following large intervals, first as a number of whole octaves plus the remainder, then using a single interval name:
Answers at the end of this post.
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Answers to Try These…
1 octave + major 2nd = major 9th 1 octave + minor 3rd = minor 10th 1 octave + major 7th = major 14th 2 octaves + minor 6th = minor 20th
Interval names are based on counting scale notes (letters) and are always counted from the lower note to the higher note, even if the higher note is played first.
An interval name is made up of two parts, quality and degree.
Degree
Treat the lower note of the interval as the root note of a major scale.
Now look for a note in the scale with the same name as the upper note of the interval. The degree is the position of that note in the scale: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th or 8th.
Quality
There are 5 qualities: major, minor, perfect, augmented and diminished, depending on the degree and the sign of the upper note (#, b etc.).
Major
The upper note is the 2nd, 3rd, 6th or 7th note of the major scale built on the lower note.
Minor
The upper note is 1 semitone lower than the 2nd, 3rd, 6th or 7th note of the major scale built on the lower note and has the same letter name.
A minor interval is 1 semitone smaller than the major interval of the same degree.
Perfect
The upper note is the 1st, 4th, 5th or 8th note of the major scale built on the lower note.
Perfect intervals are common to both major and minor scales.
Augmented (made larger)
The upper note is 1 semitone higher than the equivalent major or perfect interval (1 semitone higher than the same letter in the major scale).
An augmented interval is 1 semitone larger than the major or perfect interval of the same degree.
Diminished (made smaller)
The upper note is 1 semitone lower than the equivalent minor or perfect interval.
A diminished interval is 1 semitone smaller than the minor or perfect interval of the same degree.
Note:
A perfect 1st is called a unison.
There is no such thing as a diminished 1st: the smallest interval is 0 semitones.
A perfect 8th is called an octave (not a perfect octave).
A diminished 8th or augmented 8th is NOT called a diminished or augmented octave. An octave is, by definition, perfect.
Example: Intervals Whose Lower Note Is C
Examples
C-E is a major 3rd
C-E# is an augmented 3rd (1 semitone larger than a major 3rd)
C-Eb is a minor 3rd
C-Ebb is a diminished 3rd (1 semitone smaller than a minor 3rd)
C-G is a perfect 5th
C-G# is an augmented 5th (1 semitone larger than a perfect 5th)
C-Gb is a diminished 5th (1 semitone smaller than a perfect 4th)
Interval names are dependent on note names. if the upper note has two possible note names, each option will have a different interval name.
For example, C- G# and C-Ab both are 8 semitones apart.
C-G# is an augmented 5th (perfect 5th + 1 semitone)
C-Ab is a minor 6th (major 6th – 1 semitone)
List Of Interval Names And Sizes In Semitones
Example with C as the lower note.
NOTE: The scale used for working out an interval name is built on the lower lower note of the interval. It is no indication of the key of the piece.
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The contrast of loud and soft (quiet) is important in shaping a performance.
Dynamics is the musical term for how a musician varies loudness. When printed, dynamics are written below the stave with symbols and words in bolditalics.
In a score, each part can have its own dynamics, whereas tempo/character markings apply to the whole score. As with character and tempo markings, symbols are based on Italian words.
The following list shows the most commonly used dynamics. The default dynamic, when nothing is written, is mf (mezzo forte), or moderately loud.
Dynamics Flyover
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We have already looked at tempo: the ability to play in varying tempi, speed up or slow down while playing, or play freely, with totally flexible timing.
Overall tempo within a section of music is indicated by a metronome marking indicating the tempo in beats per minute (bpm). As we have seen in previous chapters, this is usually written as the note value representing 1 beat in the time signature followed by = and a metronome number.
Other terms and symbols are used to indicate changes in tempo within a piece. The list below is of the more common of these.
The dashed line following terms which indicate gradual tempo change extends over the number of bars or beats over which the change occurs. Tempo markings that describe an overall tempo are listed in Character Markings And Their Tempo Ranges.
Tempo Change Flyover
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These are usually descriptive words and can appear in a variety of languages including English. The Italian names are prevalent in Classical music, but in Jazz they’re usually English. Other genres often use the language of their origin.
Character markings appear above the start of the first stave on the first page, where metronome markings are also written, in Bold type.
We associate Italian character names with tempo, largely because metronomes attach tempo ranges to them, but it’s more about the character than the tempo. The ranges are quite wide, though, and it’s likely that, to achieve the appropriate character, the tempo will end up within the suggested range.
The list below lists the more common tempo markings. Other variations add –issimo to the end of the word to intensify the meaning (Larghissimo means extremely slow, Prestissimo means extremely fast), or –ino or –etto to soften the meaning (Allegretto is slightly slower than Allegro).
If the piece is to be played at a specific tempo, a metronome marking can be written after a character name.
*At the lowest tempi it becomes difficult to count the beats accurately without counting the ”ands”, the next shorter note value. For more on this, please visit 20. How To Read Rhythms 1.
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Some parts, especially rhythmic parts but also short phrases in melodic parts such as riffs, have a bar which is repeated a number of times in succession. Rather than having to write the same notes out many times we can just write the notes for the first time, then use the musical equivalent of a ditto, the repeat bar.
As rhythms are often 2 or 4 bars long there is also a 2-bar repeat and a 4-bar repeat.
The first time, the content (of 1, 2 or 4 bars) is written in full. The bar repeat symbol is written in the bars or groups of bars over which the content should be repeated.
The number of bars of the bar repeat is reflected in the number of bars the symbol covers and the number of slashes in the symbol. As a courtesy, the number 2 or 4 is written above the 2- and 4-bar repeat bar symbol.
Optionally, every few repeats, a tally of the number of times the content is played so far (including the original written-out bar(s)) is indicated above the repeat bar. This helps keep track of which repeat bar we’re up to.
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A coda is a final section, allowing further complexity in the format of a piece. After any number of other navigational signs, the music can finish on a more conclusive section than the other section endings. On repeating the piece after a D.C or D.S. the music can jump from a point labelled “To Coda” to the coda.
The stave is broken between the end of the main piece and the coda, indicating that it can only be reached from a To Coda.
Da Capo al Coda, D.C. al Coda
(go back to the beginning and repeat until the words “To Coda”, then skip to the word “Coda”)
The piece is played again from the beginning up to the words To Coda the jumps to the Coda (final section).
Segno (sign)
The segno provides another point in the music to repeat from. In a popular music song, for example, the first section is often an introduction, only intended to play at the very start. Other sections such as verses and choruses may repeat several times but without going back to the introduction. The start of the various verse and chorus sections could be marked with the segno so that the introduction isn’t repeated.
Dal Segno or D.S.
(go back to the sign and repeat from there)
If we want to go back to a section after the beginning of the piece rather than all the way back to the beginning, we can use the segno (“sign”). On reaching the term dal segno, the piece is repeated from the sign.
The abbreviation D.S. is often used instead of the full wording.
Dal Segno al Fine, D.S. al Fine
(go back to the sign and repeat from there till the word “Fine”, meaning ”end”)
Just like Da Capo al Fine but instead of repeating from the beginning of the piece till the word ”Fine”, we repeat from the sign till the word “Fine”.
D.S. al Fine
Dal Segno al Coda, D.S. al Coda
(go back to the Segno and repeat until the words “To Coda”, then skip to the Coda)
This is like Da Capo al Coda but instead of going back to the beginning of the piece, we repeat from the Segno until the words “To Coda” then jump to the coda.
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A great deal of music is made up of sections which are played more than once. Special barlines and other symbols can be used to indicate such sections, substantially reducing the number of pages required to notate a piece.
In a score, navigation text and signs are written above the stave for each part in Bold.
Navigation works a bit like a model railway, with signals directing the player through and around various sections of the music.
Although originally devised for music notation, navigation markings can equally be used on text-based notation such as chord charts or abc notation.
Navigation markings
Section End
A section end is a double barline of the usual thickness. As the name suggests, it indicates the end of a section of the music. When you see a section end, keep playing unless other symbols indicate a pause in the timing.
Final Bar/Double Bar
The final bar is a double barline with an extra-thick second line. It indicates the end of the whole piece unless other symbols indicate otherwise.
End Repeat Sign
An end repeat looks like a final bar but with two dots to the left.
If no begin repeat has been passed, go back to the beginning of the piece and play it again, else go back to the nearest begin repeat sign and play again.
Once you reach the end repeat a second time, continue onwards.
Begin Repeat Sign
A begin repeat sign is the reverse of an end repeat. When you encounter one, keep playing: it has no meaning until you reach an end repeat sign. Think of a begin and end repeat as a pair of brackets enclosing a section which is to be played twice.
Play X Times
The words “play x times” above an end repeat indicate that the repeated section is played the total number of times indicated here by “x”, such as “play 3 times”.
1st And 2nd Time Bars
In a repeated section, first and second time bars allow different endings for leading back to the start after the first time through and playing on after the repeat. First and second time bars can be made up of more than one bar, as indicated by the length of the line.
Da Capo or D.C.
As well as repeated sections, the whole piece may be repeated, including any internal repeats. A repeat sign at the end is confusing because someone reading the music would be looking for a matching start repeat that doesn’t exist. Such larger scale repeats are indicated with the Italian words “da Capo” (“from the head”), to play again from the beginning.
The abbreviation D.C. is often used instead of the full wording.
Note: In some genres, internal repeated sections are not repeated the second time.
The diagram below shows how the navigational symbols are interpreted. To keep the example tiny, each section is represented by only 2 bars (at a very fast tempo!)
Common navigation markings
All navigation markings must be written over a double bar. If there is no repeat sign or final double bar, a section end (thin double bar) must be used.
Da Capo al Fine, D.C. al Fine
(go back to the beginning and repeat until the word “Fine”)
The piece is played again from the beginning, stopping the second time on the word “Fine” (“end”).
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These three terms are often confused. They refer to the same subject but in different ways.
Scale
A scale is a series of (usually 7) consecutive note pitches finishing an octave above the first note.
The series can be extended over several octaves and is either played in ascending or descending order.
The first (and last) note of a scale is called the root note or tonic.
Mode
A mode is the pattern of intervals between the notes of a scale.
The pattern is based on the first note of the scale, the root note.
Western modes are made up of an irregular combination of (usually 1 and 2 semitone) intervals. This gives each mode a unique character called its tonality.
Key
A key is the use of the notes and tonality of a scale in a piece.
A piece is “in a key” when it uses the notes of a scale in such a way that the tonality of its mode is apparent overall when listening/playing.
Tonality
Tonality is the unique character of a mode, common to all keys in that mode.
The tonality of a mode is simply indicated by the mode’s name.
We should learn to recognise the tonality of the more common modes, both in a scale of that mode and in music written/played in that mode.
Names Of Scales And Keys
Scales and keys have the same names. They are named as the name of the root note followed by the name of the mode. For example:
the major scale on C is called C major.
Music using the notes of C major is in the key of C major.
